Integration of toxicology and epidemiology: Exploring causal inference and exposure risk assessment studies

Toxicology and epidemiology are both critical in exploring the relationship of environmental exposure with health and disease. Despite their individual limitations, integrating these two disciplines can offer a more thorough exploration of the causal relationship between exposure and health effects, as well as quantitative assessment of risks caused by exposure. This study reviews the strengths and limitations of toxicology and epidemiology and the paradigms where both disciplines have been combined in previous research, and proposes future development, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation and methodological framework for relevant studies.